Virtue

Many attempts have been made to define the cardinal virtues, or those virtues most central to excellence in humanity, or even to define what is meant by a virtue. Plato's Republic lists four cardinal or principal virtues: prudence (or practical wisdom); justice; temperance (or self control); fortitude (or courage). They are linked to the three parts of the soul (reason, spirit and desire) and to the three parts of government (philosopher-kings, guardians and artisans). These four cardinal virtues feature prominently in mediaeval Christianity.

It is generally agreed that virtue as such is more that attitude which coordinates the virtues, that which makes the virtues virtuous - specific virtues being unified in virtue. For example, St Augustine defines the four virtues as "forms" of love with God as their object. He says that virtues which do not refer to God and which are sought with no reference to God are not real virtues. Thomas Aquinas also stated that charity was the "form" of the virtues, that natural or acquired virtues of prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude needed to be "formed" by the supernatural virtues of faith, hope and charity. In addition, others have indicated that particular virtues are to be associated with different stages in life - obedience in childhood, wisdom in old age.

There is much controversy over the extent to which virtues can be possessed by those who are not good or who are not in union with God. This is partly because virtues seem intermediate between the interior disposition and intention and action. Thus Aristotle emphasizes the acquiring of virtue through action while St Augustine emphasizes orientation to God. Again, do the cardinal virtues form a schema for classifying good character dispositions or are they distinct causal powers effective in subordinate virtues ?