Duhkha (Buddhism, Hinduism)

The normal awareness of creatures under delusion, maya, is of the transient as real; this results in suffering. Only the removal of this delusion can release the soul jiva from suffering and lead to liberation mukti and bliss ananda. Some Hindu traditions see release from suffering as possible in this lifetime, and with no rebirth after death.

Buddhist tradition sees suffering – dukkha – as the inevitable result of indulging the senses, despite the apparent and transient delight or satisfaction such indulgence brings, because it entails desire and craving – trisna. Broadly, it is anything that is conditioned, anything comprised of the five aggregates of clinging – skandha: materiality (corporeality of form); feeling; perception; mental formations; consciousness. This is the basis of the four noble truths. Freedom from suffering brings rebirth into a heaven, which is achieved by stages of mental training, after which, despite a long sojourn there, the individual does eventually die. Final salvation in this case is to end life as an arhat or as a god in an immaterial heaven.

Three levels of dukkha are described: (1) Dukkha-dukkha, which is the fact of suffering inherent in the life process through birth, sickness, old age and death; (2) Viparinama-dukkha, which is the suffering of sentient creatures who are aware of the transitory nature of all things and of the gap between what may be desired and what may be obtained; (3) Samkhara-dukkha, which is the suffering inherent in human nature.

One of the three characteristics – trilaksana – of the phenomenal world, the others being anicca (transitoriness) and anatta (non-self).